The History of First Nations People

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Historical Context: First Nations People Classified as "American Indian" or "Negro" by the Census Bureau

The classification of First Nations people in the United States has been deeply influenced by colonial systems of racial categorization, particularly through the U.S. Census Bureau. This process often conflated Indigenous identities with other racial categories, such as "Negro," especially for those who did not relocate to reservations. Below is an outline of this historical practice:

1. Early Census Practices and Classification

• 1790–1840 Censuses:

  • Native Americans living within tribal nations were largely excluded from enumeration unless they had renounced tribal affiliation and were assimilated into settler society.

  • Those assimilated were often categorized as "Indian" under "Color" if they lived among the general population

• 1860 Census:

  • Introduced specific instructions to enumerate Native Americans who had renounced tribal rule and exercised citizenship rights under state or territorial laws.

  • Those living outside reservations but not recognized as part of white society were sometimes misclassified based on physical appearance or community association.

2. The Reservation System and "Indian" Classification

• Post-1870s Reservations:

  • Native Americans who moved to reservations were more consistently classified as "Indian" in census records.

  • Special schedules in the 1900 and 1910 censuses began asking for tribal affiliations and ancestry, reinforcing the political and legal classification of Native Americans as a distinct group.

3. Misclassification of Non-Reservation Indigenous People

• Conflation with "Negro" Identity:

  • Indigenous individuals who remained off-reservation, particularly in the Southeast, Midwest, and parts of the South, were often misclassified as "Negro" or "Black." This was due to racialized census practices that relied on appearance, local social structures, or mixed ancestry.

• For example, members of tribes like the Lumbee and Tunica-Biloxi—many of whom had African ancestry—were frequently categorized as "Negro," erasing their Indigenous identity in official record.

4. Racial Categorization Policies

• Directive No. 15 (1977):

  • Established five major racial categories, including "American Indian or Alaska Native," but did not account for the complex identities of Indigenous people with African ancestry or mixed heritage

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  • This directive perpetuated historical misclassifications by forcing individuals to choose one racial identity over another.

• Modern Census Practices:

  • The inclusion of multi-racial categories in recent censuses has allowed for more accurate representation of mixed-heritage Indigenous people. However, many still face challenges in being recognized as both Native American and African-descended

5. Impact on Tribal Sovereignty and Identity

• Loss of Recognition:

  • Misclassification led to the erasure of many Indigenous communities from federal recognition processes, impacting their ability to claim treaty rights or access federal programs.

• Cultural Marginalization:

  • The conflation of First Nations people with other racial groups undermined their distinct cultural identities and histories.

Conclusion

The U.S. Census Bureau’s historical classification practices have profoundly influenced how First Nations people were categorized, particularly separating those who moved to reservations as "Indians" while labeling others as "Negroes." These practices erased complex identities, disrupted tribal sovereignty, and continue to impact how Indigenous communities are recognized today.

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